“Capital
is dead labor, that, vampire-like, only lives by sucking [blood] from living
labor.”
“The
development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very
foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces,
above all is its own grave-diggers…”
—Karl
Marx, Das Kapital (1867)
Though
often disastrous when applied to politics or economics, Marxist theory has been
fruitfully applied in other areas, in particular literature and sociology,
yielding valuable insights about societies under duress. It seems especially useful to apply Marxist
notions to the cultural products of rapidly industrializing societies, both
present and past. José B. Monleon did
just this in his A Specter is Haunting
Europe: A Sociohistorical Approach to
the Fantastic (1990). (The excerpt
that I have is in Ken Gelder’s excellent 2000 anthology of horror criticism, The Horror Reader.) His focus was on the literature of the early
to middle 19th century, but his insights are applicable to much more
recent work.
Monleon
sees in Marx’s famous opening line to the Communist
Manifesto, (“A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism.”), a
connection with the popular interest in séances and the supernatural that was prevalent
at the time. That Marx should use a
supernatural metaphor to introduce the advent of radical socioeconomic change
is significant. Monleon suggests that
bourgeois society’s struggle to assimilate the increasing power and political
threat of the working class is mirrored in the transformation of gothic fantasy
and horror literature into its more modern form. This process began as a result of the tumult
of the Industrial Revolution, but continues today.
According
to the author, Gothic horrors were characterized by their otherness and
separation from ordinary life; they were also easier to categorize as evil and
unearthly. Similarly, before
industrialization, the poor and marginalized were often kept geographically
apart from higher socioeconomic classes—an endeavor that continues today. As always, the poor were seen as a source of
crime, disease, ignorance and violence. However,
with increasing industrialization and urbanization, the poor and working class
were brought into closer proximity to the middle and upper classes, causing
increased friction, anxiety, and social instability.
In
the mid-nineteenth century and beyond, Europe and America struggled to adapt to
social changes brought by industrialization.
This often involved searching for ways to integrate and control
economically displaced people emigrating to the cities. While this was going on, fantasy and horror
literature became increasingly introspective and ambiguous about traditional
boundaries between reason and “unreason”.
It
seems that the collective social nightmare of managing the upheaval of
industrialization was documented by the horror and fantasy writers of the
time—in their dream journal of the Industrial Revolution. Monleon believes that a progression can be
seen in the literature of horror and the fantastic; what is fearful becomes
internalized, even within the personality of a single character. The social and economic conflicts of
increasingly urban society become the fearful fantasies of a single
individual’s psyche. This
internalization anticipates Sigmund Freud’s later explorations of the
unconscious mind near the end of the nineteenth century.
Monleon
provides several examples of this from stories by Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Wollstonecraft
Shelley’s Frankenstein. The
Masque of the Red Death (1842) can be seen as a metaphor for the bourgeoisie
(Prince Prospero) as it strives unsuccessfully to avoid the growing instability
in its midst, (the Red Death—in Monleon’s use, almost a pun on the “Red Menace” of the early 20th
century). Perhaps The Fall of the House of Usher (1839) is not only symbolic of
Roderick Usher's collapsing sanity, but a literal reference to the deterioration
of ideas about private property and the stability of the economic system that
supports them.
Monleon
is on stronger ground when discussing the monster in Shelley’s Frankenstein, a creature made possible
by technological advances and manufactured from component parts. In some sense Frankenstein's monster is a creation of
industrialization and the oppression of the working class. But he is ‘out of control’, just as the
instability and social strife created by rapid industrialization was beyond the
direction of the ruling class. The novel raises many important questions about
personal and social responsibility for the creation of “monsters” that are
still relevant today.
The
author notes that the depiction of monsters in the fantastic literature of this
time period—early to mid-19th century—is typically a distortion or parody
of the ideal human form as dictated by bourgeois standards. Later this develops into the use of
descriptive details suggestive of animalistic, racial, and proletarian
qualities. He gives the example of Poe’s
The Murders in the Rue Morgue
(1841). Though not discussed by Monleon
in this excerpt, it appears that by the early 20th century, ethnicity also became an important
descriptor of monstrosity, probably reflecting fears of immigrants seeking a
place in the new industrial economy.
Which
brings us to H.P. Lovecraft and his colleagues, who documented the nightmares
of early 20th century America during a time of great social and
economic upheaval. Along with Clark
Ashton Smith, Robert E. Howard, and others, Lovecraft wrote during the Great
Depression, a time when many were considering the feasibility of applying
Marxist principles to resolving America’s social and economic woes. Lovecraft was quite reactionary in this
regard, and identified strongly with his lost bourgeois past, even as he
exhausted his grandfather’s accumulated capital and approached poverty
himself. (To be fair, he adopted a
version of socialism in his later years.)
The
internalization of social anxieties about the rise of the proletariat (and its
expansion by way of immigration) are reflected in several of Lovecraft’s
stories, but especially in The Street
(1920), The Terrible Old Man (1921),
and The Horror at Red Hook (1927). These have been discussed in earlier
posts; see Architecture
vs. Communist Hordes, 1.
The Horrors of Growing Old, and The
Horrors of Immigration. The frequently autobiographical
and introspective nature of Lovecraft’s fiction makes him an ‘n of one’ study
of late Industrial Revolution social angst.
His example lends support to Monleon’s description above of the
progression from external to internalized horrors as industrial society
incorporates its social and economic upheavals.
Lovecraft
of course neurotically resists the changes, clinging to his own idealized
bourgeois past. But his contempt for the
poor and the different seems a form of self-hatred. He had failed as a writer—the ultimate
bourgeois entrepreneurship. He was also
unable to meet the expectations of his social class as a husband who could
provide for or sustain a family in the new economy. Had he lived much longer than he did, he
would have exhausted his inheritance and joined the poor and working class—an
ever present personal horror. Yet, like
Lovecraft, our contempt for the poor
and ‘the other’ persists, as do our efforts to differentiate ourselves from
them, and to live apart from them. This
is the source of some of our most spectacular nightmares.
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